A brief overview.
Criminology is a social science that focuses on the study of crime. It is a multidisciplinary subject that spans psychology, anthropology, law, medicine, the natural sciences, theology, and economics. It focuses also on the reaction society has to a crime and how it was committed. For example, why do we believe that someone who steals a pack of gum is less of a criminal than someone who murders another human being? Questions like these are what the study of criminology seeks to answer.
The Three Main Problems
Criminology deals with three main problems.
Who committed the crime?
How should they be punished for their crime?
Why did they commit the crime?
Criminology Throughout the Ages
Criminology can be seen as far back as the middle ages. During this time, the main motive thought to be behind any crime was based around the main theological ideas of the time. If someone stole a loaf of bread it was because the devil told them to do so. If a woman disobeyed her husband it was because she was a witch. Likewise, those who committed crimes were often forced to endure harsh punishments. For example, if someone was perceived to be a witch, she was tied up and thrown in a body of water. If she drowned she was guilty, if she survived, she was innocent. As you can see, there was very little science in play behind the study of criminology at this time.
Classical Criminology
During the 18th century, criminology evolved to include the main philosophical schools of thought. This was when the first academic approach to criminology was taken. According to many philosophers who lived during the Enlightenment, humans were rational beings who acted of their own volition. Hedonism, such as what has now been termed ‘hedonistic calculus,’ was thought to be a major motivator behind criminal acts. Hedonistic calculus states that those who commit crimes do so because they will experience more pleasure from committing the crime than they would from the punishment they face due to the crime. If humans are rational beings who innately strive to maximize pleasure, why not break a law if doing so helps with that endeavor? This was the rationale behind many crimes of the time, and also why the punishment that criminals received at the time was particularly harsh. It was thought to be the only deterrent against someone wanting to steal or murder.
The two main figureheads of classical criminology were Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccarria. They both advocated to reform the criminal justice system to include less cruel forms of punishment. This was due in part to a study they conducted that proved that people who committed crimes generally did so because they chose to, not because they were being guided by the devil.
Neoclassical Criminology
This school of thought emerged shortly after classical criminology. Its main contribution to the field was the introduction of the plea ‘self defense’. Neoclassical criminology generally worked to revise parts of classical criminology. Main neoclassical criminologists include: Raymonde Saleilles and Gabriel Tarde.
Positivist Criminology
Positivist criminology emerged during the 19th century. One of the most prominent criminologists of this time was Cesare Lombroso. He believed that “criminals were evolutionary throwbacks who betrayed their criminal instincts through a range of anatomical features…”(Bryson 75). This period represents a huge shift from rationalism to determinism and a regression back to the belief that we are not in control of the actions we take. One big advancement of this period was the introduction of environmental factors into the motives of criminals. Previously, the environment and the biological circumstances of a criminal were not taken into account when determining why they committed their crime. As far as positivist criminology is concerned, a person is a criminal from the moment they are born; their upbringing and immediate social circumstances are of no consequence when determining why they committed a crime. This is similar to the philosophical concept of fatalism, which is an attitude of mind where a person accepts that they have no control over anything that happens to them or because of them. In other words, everything is predetermined and we are powerless to change the course of this predetermination. Therefore, positivist criminology, specifically as far as Cesare Lombroso is concerned, states that some of us are criminals simply because we have a long neck, small hands, or a big nose. We are predetermined to break the law because it is ingrained in our genes.
Positivist criminology focused not on punishment, but on using scientific methods tailored specifically to the individual to understand why they committed their crime. If they could not be ‘fixed’ by these scientific methods, they were killed. This school of criminology was predominantly driven by American thought. The focus was much more on the individual, and less on society and the law itself.
Conclusion
Throughout the ages, criminology has evolved and digressed into many different schools of thought. It has come to include varying philosophical concepts, such as rationalism, determinism, hedonism, fatalism, and epicureanism. Criminology has evolved along with society and the general narrative that society holds at any given time. It will continue to evolve, and has already, to include technologies such as facial recognition software and advanced surveying techniques.
Works Cited
“A brief History of Criminology.” Act For Libraries. http://www.actforlibraries.org/a-brief-history-of-criminology/.
Date Accessed 14 March 2022.
Jeffery, Ray Clarence. “The Historical Development of Criminology.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology.
https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4793&context=jclc.
Date Accessed 14 March 2022.
“The History of Criminology.” Criminology. 2018. https://www.criminology.com/the-history-of-criminology-2/.
Date Accessed 14 March 2022.
Bryson, Bill. "The Head." The Body: A Guide for Occupants, Anchor Canada, 2019,
pp. 74-75.
Researched and written by Sarah
Published by Emmaline
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